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Figure paintings, primarily of couples, have been found on the murals in Koguryo (高句麗) tombs, and evidences shows that portrait paintings were produced throughout the Unified Silla (統一新羅;668—918) and Koryo (高麗;918—1392) periods. The demand for ceremonial portraits increased drastically during the Chosun (朝鮮) Dynasty(1392–1910) when Confucianism was adopted as the guiding ideology and numerous ceremonies were observed in an effort to encourage filial piety and promote respect for wisdom among the Korean people. As a result, there was a great demand for portraits of various subjects in the Chosun Dynasty.\n Portrait paintings can be generally classified into six categories based on the social status of the sitter: portraits of kings, portraits of meritorious retainers, portraits of el derly officials (耆老), portraits of scholar-officials, portraits of women, and portraits of Buddhist monks.\n A vast number of portraits were produced for the 27 kings of the Chosun period (1392-1910). King Taejo, the founding monarch, was the subject of 26 portraits, and a new portrait of King Youngjo, the twenty-first ruler, was commissioned every ten years during his reign.\n In fact, the production of these royal portraits was tantamount to a major state event because the paintings symbolized the authority of kings and their aspirations for the perpetuation of the dynasty. For this reason, each royal painting was produced with great care and effort.\n The second category of portrait paintings includes representations of meritorious retainers, or \u0027kongsin\u0027 (功臣). The \u0027kongsin\u0027 was bestowed as an expression of appreciation by the king on those who performed distinguished services for the state. The king usually ordered the portraits of those awarded this status as a great honor not only for the \u0027kongsin\u0027 themselves but also for their families for generations to come. The system served to enhance the power and prestige of the monarchy and also to warn people against disloyalty to their monarch.\n In the Chosun Dynasty, no fewer than 28 different titles were used to commend the so-called \u0027meritorious retai ners\u0027. It was not uncommon for 100 or more retainers to be granted titles at one time. Such massive commendations were accompanied by an equally massive boom in portrait painting. Leading artists were usually mobilized for the task at the order of the king.\n In almost all cases, the subject of the portrait was seated in a chair with his hands folded in front of him. Dressed in his official robes and a black silk hat, the subject wore his official emblem on his chest. These chest patches serve as\nimportant materials for historical research as they reveal the subject\u0027s rank in the government at the time of the painting.\n The third category of portraits from the Chosun Dynasty, though not many in number, are the portraits of \u0027kiro\u0027 (耆老). Literally, the word \u0027kiro\u0027 refers to elderly men in their sixties (耆) or seventies (老), but it took much more than age for a man to qualify for \u0027kiro\u0027(a member of the \u0027kiroso)\u0027. He had to hold a respectable social position and be known for his virtuous character and other personal merits.\n Societies of elderly men were common in China during the Tang (唐) and Song (宋) dynasties. In Korea, aristocratic men of letters formed fraternal societies during the Koryo period. A court agency, known as the \u0027kiroso\u0027 (耆老所), replaced these private gatherings in 1394, shortly after the founding of the Chosun Dynasty. The agency existed through the end of the dynasty but it was never more than symbolic in authority and actually had little political power. Most of the portraits of elderly officials extant today are album leaves, much like pages from mo dern day school albums.\n As for the fourth category of portraits, those of scholarofficials (士大夫), it doesn\u0027t appear that such portraits had any public function, as opposed to the three categories previously mentioned. Generally speaking, most portraits of this kind were enshrined in \u0027sadang\u0027 (祠堂) and \u0027seowon\u0027 (書院) as a way for descendants and disciples to commemorate the deceased. Furthermore, by performing ceremonies, the descendants and disciples solidified a common tie between them. These portraits were usually portrayed during the sitter\u0027s lifetime, but sometimes portraits were produced posthumously. In the case of famous scholars, a considerable number of replicas were produced to be enshrined in many places. Most often the scholar official was shown seated cross-legged, wearing elegant scholar\u0027s robes.\n Female portraits, the fifth category, are far outnumbered by portraits in the other categories. In the early part of the Chosun Dynasty, portraits of the queen were produced and enshrined at special enshrinement places and Buddhist temples alongside portraits of the king. However, during the later part of the Chosun Dynasty, strict discrimination between sexes became prevalent. This discrimination was especially deeply rooted in the upper class. As a natural result, we rarely find the portraits of women from that time.\n The last category covers Buddhist monks. Despite obstacles to producing portraits of monks as seen in the motto, “suppressing Buddhism and enhancing Confucianism”, the Chosun Dynasty continued to produce many portraits of Buddhist monks, and these portraits were enshrined in \u0027josadang\u0027 (祖師堂; special enshrinement places in the temples). In terms of the artistic style, this category had self-imposed limitations: the posture of the subject, the props (especially beads, sticks), deep co loring, brushstroke technique, and so on, all of which were stereotyped because the painters themselves were also Buddhist monks who stubbornly adhered to their own style.\n For the most part, Chosun Dynasty portraits were produced for ritual and ceremonial purposes. Therefore, portraits lacked variety in canvas format and style. Portraits used for ceremonial purposes, usually of the large hanging scroll type, appeared monotonous in composition and lacked complex backgrounds and narrative depth. As a result, portraits were valued not for their artistic qualities but for their social function and influence.\n On the other hand, ceremonial characteristics of portrait paintings reflected the social status of the subject. The artist was responsible for expressing the subject\u0027s importance through the art work. The artist attempted to understand the social background, profession and personal cha racter of the subjects as the portraits were intended to present them in the best light possible. The portraits were designed to evoke in the viewer both positive memories and deep reverence for the subect. The British scholar Arthur Waley aptly coined the expression “biography plus imagery” to describe this aspect of Oriental portrait pain ting.\n It was only natural, therefore, that portraits of kings were meant to symbolize the supremacy of the Dynasty. Painters did their best to portray a majestic image of their ruler. Meritorious retainers were most often portrayed as the embodiment of nobility and dignity, and models for their descendants. Paintings of literati emphasized the subject\u0027s intellectual character.\n This tendency to portray idealized traits, in addition to the physical characteristics or personality of the subject, enhanced the value of the portrait as testimony to history. The portrait painter did not regard the physical appearance of his subject simply as a form for artistic expression, nor did the viewer seek simple aesthetic enjoyment in these paintings. Rather, both the painter and the viewer saw these paintings as an expression of the unique character of the subject.\n Thus, when a king took refuge during a war, portraits of his royal predecessors were always taken along. The king and his minister observed rites to appease the deceased kings and seek their assistance in overcoming the crisis. Commoners also carried spirit tablets and portraits of their ancestors with them when they fled during times of war. If it was impossible to carry these items with them, they would place them in a large jar and bury them in a safe place. Few people took these precautions with genre or landscape paintings. Because of the Korean people\u0027s reverence for their ancestors, more than 1000 traditional portraits have survived in the care of private citizens and museums around Korea, thus providing us with works unique for both their artistic value and historical significance.", "subitem_description_type": "Abstract"}]}, "item_creator": {"attribute_name": "著者", "attribute_type": "creator", "attribute_value_mlt": [{"creatorNames": [{"creatorName": "趙, 善美"}], "nameIdentifiers": [{"nameIdentifier": "26442", "nameIdentifierScheme": "WEKO"}]}, {"creatorNames": [{"creatorName": "Cho, Sum-mie", "creatorNameLang": "en"}], "nameIdentifiers": [{"nameIdentifier": "26443", "nameIdentifierScheme": "WEKO"}]}]}, "item_files": {"attribute_name": "ファイル情報", "attribute_type": "file", "attribute_value_mlt": [{"accessrole": "open_date", "date": [{"dateType": "Available", "dateValue": "2021-04-28"}], "displaytype": "detail", "download_preview_message": "", "file_order": 0, "filename": "374_1_Cho_Redacted.pdf", "filesize": [{"value": "12.5 MB"}], "format": "application/pdf", "future_date_message": "", "is_thumbnail": false, "licensetype": "license_11", "mimetype": "application/pdf", "size": 12500000.0, "url": {"label": "374_1_Cho_Redacted", "url": "https://tobunken.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/6255/files/374_1_Cho_Redacted.pdf"}, "version_id": "d3b99ab6-a6c7-48f3-a661-7af922b1df6d"}]}, "item_keyword": {"attribute_name": "キーワード", "attribute_value_mlt": [{"subitem_subject": "御真(王の肖像画)・功臣像・耆老図・一般士大夫像・僧像", "subitem_subject_scheme": "Other"}]}, "item_language": {"attribute_name": "言語", "attribute_value_mlt": [{"subitem_language": "jpn"}]}, "item_resource_type": {"attribute_name": "資源タイプ", "attribute_value_mlt": [{"resourcetype": "journal article", "resourceuri": "http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501"}]}, "item_title": "朝鮮王朝時代肖像画の類型及び社会的機能", "item_titles": {"attribute_name": "タイトル", "attribute_value_mlt": [{"subitem_title": "朝鮮王朝時代肖像画の類型及び社会的機能"}, {"subitem_title": "The Portrait Paintings of the Choson Dynasty: Categories and Social Function", "subitem_title_language": "en"}]}, "item_type_id": "10001", "owner": "3", "path": ["1003"], "permalink_uri": "https://tobunken.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/6255", "pubdate": {"attribute_name": "公開日", "attribute_value": "2017-10-05"}, "publish_date": "2017-10-05", "publish_status": "0", "recid": "6255", "relation": {}, "relation_version_is_last": true, "title": ["朝鮮王朝時代肖像画の類型及び社会的機能"], "weko_shared_id": 3}
朝鮮王朝時代肖像画の類型及び社会的機能
https://tobunken.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/6255
https://tobunken.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/6255d9c2bf97-1772-4e3f-bcb5-370222dbfc5a
名前 / ファイル | ライセンス | アクション |
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374_1_Cho_Redacted (12.5 MB)
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Item type | 学術雑誌論文 / Journal Article(1) | |||||
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公開日 | 2017-10-05 | |||||
タイトル | ||||||
タイトル | 朝鮮王朝時代肖像画の類型及び社会的機能 | |||||
タイトル | ||||||
言語 | en | |||||
タイトル | The Portrait Paintings of the Choson Dynasty: Categories and Social Function | |||||
言語 | ||||||
言語 | jpn | |||||
キーワード | ||||||
主題Scheme | Other | |||||
主題 | 御真(王の肖像画)・功臣像・耆老図・一般士大夫像・僧像 | |||||
資源タイプ | ||||||
資源タイプ識別子 | http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501 | |||||
資源タイプ | journal article | |||||
著者 |
趙, 善美
× 趙, 善美× Cho, Sum-mie |
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抄録 | ||||||
内容記述タイプ | Abstract | |||||
内容記述 | The oldest extant Korean portrait paintings date back to the Three Kingdoms period (B.C.1 – A.D.7 century). Figure paintings, primarily of couples, have been found on the murals in Koguryo (高句麗) tombs, and evidences shows that portrait paintings were produced throughout the Unified Silla (統一新羅;668—918) and Koryo (高麗;918—1392) periods. The demand for ceremonial portraits increased drastically during the Chosun (朝鮮) Dynasty(1392–1910) when Confucianism was adopted as the guiding ideology and numerous ceremonies were observed in an effort to encourage filial piety and promote respect for wisdom among the Korean people. As a result, there was a great demand for portraits of various subjects in the Chosun Dynasty. Portrait paintings can be generally classified into six categories based on the social status of the sitter: portraits of kings, portraits of meritorious retainers, portraits of el derly officials (耆老), portraits of scholar-officials, portraits of women, and portraits of Buddhist monks. A vast number of portraits were produced for the 27 kings of the Chosun period (1392-1910). King Taejo, the founding monarch, was the subject of 26 portraits, and a new portrait of King Youngjo, the twenty-first ruler, was commissioned every ten years during his reign. In fact, the production of these royal portraits was tantamount to a major state event because the paintings symbolized the authority of kings and their aspirations for the perpetuation of the dynasty. For this reason, each royal painting was produced with great care and effort. The second category of portrait paintings includes representations of meritorious retainers, or 'kongsin' (功臣). The 'kongsin' was bestowed as an expression of appreciation by the king on those who performed distinguished services for the state. The king usually ordered the portraits of those awarded this status as a great honor not only for the 'kongsin' themselves but also for their families for generations to come. The system served to enhance the power and prestige of the monarchy and also to warn people against disloyalty to their monarch. In the Chosun Dynasty, no fewer than 28 different titles were used to commend the so-called 'meritorious retai ners'. It was not uncommon for 100 or more retainers to be granted titles at one time. Such massive commendations were accompanied by an equally massive boom in portrait painting. Leading artists were usually mobilized for the task at the order of the king. In almost all cases, the subject of the portrait was seated in a chair with his hands folded in front of him. Dressed in his official robes and a black silk hat, the subject wore his official emblem on his chest. These chest patches serve as important materials for historical research as they reveal the subject's rank in the government at the time of the painting. The third category of portraits from the Chosun Dynasty, though not many in number, are the portraits of 'kiro' (耆老). Literally, the word 'kiro' refers to elderly men in their sixties (耆) or seventies (老), but it took much more than age for a man to qualify for 'kiro'(a member of the 'kiroso)'. He had to hold a respectable social position and be known for his virtuous character and other personal merits. Societies of elderly men were common in China during the Tang (唐) and Song (宋) dynasties. In Korea, aristocratic men of letters formed fraternal societies during the Koryo period. A court agency, known as the 'kiroso' (耆老所), replaced these private gatherings in 1394, shortly after the founding of the Chosun Dynasty. The agency existed through the end of the dynasty but it was never more than symbolic in authority and actually had little political power. Most of the portraits of elderly officials extant today are album leaves, much like pages from mo dern day school albums. As for the fourth category of portraits, those of scholarofficials (士大夫), it doesn't appear that such portraits had any public function, as opposed to the three categories previously mentioned. Generally speaking, most portraits of this kind were enshrined in 'sadang' (祠堂) and 'seowon' (書院) as a way for descendants and disciples to commemorate the deceased. Furthermore, by performing ceremonies, the descendants and disciples solidified a common tie between them. These portraits were usually portrayed during the sitter's lifetime, but sometimes portraits were produced posthumously. In the case of famous scholars, a considerable number of replicas were produced to be enshrined in many places. Most often the scholar official was shown seated cross-legged, wearing elegant scholar's robes. Female portraits, the fifth category, are far outnumbered by portraits in the other categories. In the early part of the Chosun Dynasty, portraits of the queen were produced and enshrined at special enshrinement places and Buddhist temples alongside portraits of the king. However, during the later part of the Chosun Dynasty, strict discrimination between sexes became prevalent. This discrimination was especially deeply rooted in the upper class. As a natural result, we rarely find the portraits of women from that time. The last category covers Buddhist monks. Despite obstacles to producing portraits of monks as seen in the motto, “suppressing Buddhism and enhancing Confucianism”, the Chosun Dynasty continued to produce many portraits of Buddhist monks, and these portraits were enshrined in 'josadang' (祖師堂; special enshrinement places in the temples). In terms of the artistic style, this category had self-imposed limitations: the posture of the subject, the props (especially beads, sticks), deep co loring, brushstroke technique, and so on, all of which were stereotyped because the painters themselves were also Buddhist monks who stubbornly adhered to their own style. For the most part, Chosun Dynasty portraits were produced for ritual and ceremonial purposes. Therefore, portraits lacked variety in canvas format and style. Portraits used for ceremonial purposes, usually of the large hanging scroll type, appeared monotonous in composition and lacked complex backgrounds and narrative depth. As a result, portraits were valued not for their artistic qualities but for their social function and influence. On the other hand, ceremonial characteristics of portrait paintings reflected the social status of the subject. The artist was responsible for expressing the subject's importance through the art work. The artist attempted to understand the social background, profession and personal cha racter of the subjects as the portraits were intended to present them in the best light possible. The portraits were designed to evoke in the viewer both positive memories and deep reverence for the subect. The British scholar Arthur Waley aptly coined the expression “biography plus imagery” to describe this aspect of Oriental portrait pain ting. It was only natural, therefore, that portraits of kings were meant to symbolize the supremacy of the Dynasty. Painters did their best to portray a majestic image of their ruler. Meritorious retainers were most often portrayed as the embodiment of nobility and dignity, and models for their descendants. Paintings of literati emphasized the subject's intellectual character. This tendency to portray idealized traits, in addition to the physical characteristics or personality of the subject, enhanced the value of the portrait as testimony to history. The portrait painter did not regard the physical appearance of his subject simply as a form for artistic expression, nor did the viewer seek simple aesthetic enjoyment in these paintings. Rather, both the painter and the viewer saw these paintings as an expression of the unique character of the subject. Thus, when a king took refuge during a war, portraits of his royal predecessors were always taken along. The king and his minister observed rites to appease the deceased kings and seek their assistance in overcoming the crisis. Commoners also carried spirit tablets and portraits of their ancestors with them when they fled during times of war. If it was impossible to carry these items with them, they would place them in a large jar and bury them in a safe place. Few people took these precautions with genre or landscape paintings. Because of the Korean people's reverence for their ancestors, more than 1000 traditional portraits have survived in the care of private citizens and museums around Korea, thus providing us with works unique for both their artistic value and historical significance. |
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書誌情報 |
美術研究 en : The bijutsu kenkyu : the journal of art studies 号 374, p. 1-24, 発行日 2002-02-25 |